Table 3 First stage estimates of the IVs

Log(per‐capita expenditures)

0.035***

0.073***

0.071***

(0.004)

(0.011)

(0.011)

Log(household size)

0.050***

0.098***

0.102***

(0.007)

(0.018)

(0.018)

Prop. of children < 15

‐0.032

0.119*

0.087

(0.017)

(0.050)

(0.044)

Prop. of adults >= 15 with prim. educ.

‐0.012

0.018

0.002

(0.015)

(0.034)

(0.033)

Prop. of adults >= 15 with sec. educ.

0.064***

0.110*

‐0.023

(0.019)

(0.047)

(0.047)

Prop. of adults >= 15 with ter. educ.

0.090***

0.089

0.052

(0.022)

(0.053)

(0.056)

Rural area

‐0.033***

‐0.006

‐0.039

(0.007)

(0.020)

(0.020)

Remittances in the community in 1999

2.069***

2.080***

1.721***

(0.106)

(0.285)

(0.239)

‐sec. educ.

‐0.900***

‐0.950

1.342*

(0.227)

(0.596)

(0.571)

‐ter. educ.

‐2.031***

‐1.426*

‐0.922

(0.256)

(0.642)

(0.713)

Constant

‐0.183***

‐0.540***

‐0.460***

(0.037)

(0.089)

(0.091)

R‐squared

0.057

0.094

0.113

Observations

12488

2211

2210

F‐statistic of the instruments F(3,N‐k‐1)

165

23

42