Table 2 Static flow model estimates with alternative measurements for the welfare state
From: EU enlargement and the race to the bottom of welfare states
Explanatory variables | Dependent variable: Δm ij,t = annual change in the diaspora ratio | |
|---|---|---|
(6) | (7) | |
Destination country variables X j,t-1 | ||
Annual nominal net wage in 10,000 Euro in j | 5.108*** | 4.391* |
(1.610) | (2.467) | |
Unemployment rate in % in j | -0.401*** | -0.420*** |
(0.098) | (0.115) | |
Population in destination country j in mio. persons | 0.038* | 0.039** |
(0.020) | (0.019) | |
Southern European country (0/1) | 9.272*** | 9.305*** |
(1.722) | (1.704) | |
Regime dummy (restricted freedom of m.) in j (0/1) | -11.059 | -9.450 |
(7.794) | (8.401) | |
Net replacement rate in % in j | 2.770 | |
(4.860) | ||
Annual replacement income in 10,000 Euro in j | 1.546 | |
(2.971) | ||
Source-destination (network) effects N ij,t-1 | ||
Diaspora stock in j in mio. persons | 0.508 | 0.710 |
(2.842) | (2.844) | |
Education level (ISCED) in the age-specific diaspora | 2.964 | 3.043 |
(1.845) | (1.950) | |
Proportion of females in the age-specific diaspora | -1.532 | -1.592 |
(3.130) | (3.241) | |
Proportion of employed in the age-specific diaspora | -3.480 | -3.716 |
(4.150) | (4.055) | |
Source specific factors S i,t-1 | ||
Education level (ISCED) in the source cohort | -3.515 | -3.584 |
(4.237) | (4.327) | |
Proportion of employed in the source cohort | -18.296** | -18.679** |
(8.632) | (8.133) | |
Interaction of push-pull factors and the migration regime I ij,t-1 a | ||
Annual nominal net wage x regime dummy | -4.129** | -3.200 |
(1.606) | (2.531) | |
Unemployment rate x regime dummy | 0.505*** | 0.537*** |
(0.145) | (0.149) | |
Diaspora stock in j in mio. persons x regime dummy | -1.393 | -1.595 |
(3.860) | (3.891) | |
Net replacement rate x regime dummy | -2.668 | |
(4.487) | ||
Annual replacement income x regime dummy | -1.925 | |
(2.852) | ||
Proportion of unemployed in the source cohort x | -4.262 | -3.813 |
regime dummy | (16.629) | (16.311) |
Source cohort dummies | Yes | Yes |
R-squared | 0.475 | 0.475 |
Number of observations | 432 | 432 |